Understanding Refugee & Migrant Female Learners

Welcome to Module 1 of the JustHer! online/blended course, "Understanding Refugee & Migrant Female Learners". This module is designed to equip adult educators with the essential knowledge and skills needed to effectively support refugee and migrant women. Our goal is to enhance your pedagogical approaches, strengthen your soft skills, and deepen your intercultural understanding, enabling you to create truly inclusive and impactful learning environments. By offering a comprehensive perspective, this module aims to boost your effectiveness as an educator and your positive influence on female (migrant) learners, encouraging their ongoing learning and active participation in society.

Subtopic 1: Cultural Barriers, Gender Challenges, and Learning Preferences

This section explores the diverse factors shaping how refugee and migrant women experience education. It highlights the crucial role of cultural adaptation and identity, emphasising that maintaining cultural identity is vital for belonging while integrating into a new society. We will examine language barriers and communication noting how cultural differences in communication can specifically influence a woman's access to, and participation in, job and educational opportunities. The module also addresses unique gender-specific hurdles, such as traditional gender roles, societal expectations, and the "double burden" many women face. Understanding intersectionality---how gender, culture, religion, and social status combine---is key to recognising unique challenges. Finally, it offers practical approaches focusing on diverse learning preferences, acknowledging that learners may range from extensively schooled to low-literate or non-literate. This section helps educators' value prior experiences, build confidence, and emphasise both language and essential literacy development.

Subtopic 2: Psychological Aspects of Migration and Trauma-Informed Teaching Approaches

This subtopic explores the profound psychological impact of displacement and migration on refugee and migrant women. It covers pre-migration trauma (e.g., conflict, violence, loss) and the concept of migratory mourning, acknowledging that migration often involves significant losses beyond direct trauma. We will also address ongoing post-migration stressors (e.g., discrimination, isolation, financial insecurity) and common psychological responses like anxiety, depression, and Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), emphasising these are normal reactions to abnormal situations. To support learners, this section introduces trauma-informed teaching principles, focusing on creating a safe and predictable learning environment, promoting learner control and choice, and building rapport and trust. Finally, it outlines practical ways to promote resilience and well-being, including facilitating connections and fostering a sense of control and self-efficacy among learners. By the end of this module, you will gain a deeper, more empathetic understanding of refugee and migrant female learners, empowering you to design and deliver more impactful and supportive educational experiences.

Module Evaluation and Reflection:

To assess your comprehension of the module's content, each subtopic includes evaluation questions. These questions are designed to help you solidify your understanding of the key concepts presented. Additionally, you will find "Food for Thought" questions at the end of the module, encouraging deeper reflection on the topics covered and their application in your own educational practice.

Upon completing this module, you will be able to:

-Understand Diverse Learner Profiles: Gain a deeper insight into the varied cultural backgrounds, gender-specific challenges, and diverse learning preferences of refugee and migrant female learners.

-Recognise Psychological Impacts: Identify the psychological effects of migration, including pre-migration trauma, post-migration stressors, and the concept of migratory mourning.

-Apply Trauma-Informed Principles: Learn and apply core principles of trauma-informed teaching to create safe, predictable, and empowering learning environments.

-Promote Resilience and Well-being: Develop practical strategies to foster resilience, well-being, and a sense of control and self-efficacy among your learners.

-Enhance Inclusive Practices: Strengthen your ability to address language barriers, literacy needs, and promote social connections, while also signposting and making resources available for migrant and refugee women learners to thrive and empower themselves within your educational practice.

This section explores the multifaceted factors that shape how refugee and migrant women experience education and integration in new European societies. For adult educators, understanding these dynamics is paramount to creating truly welcoming, effective, and empowering learning environments.

Cultural Barriers

The journey of refugee and migrant women into a new European society often involves a delicate balance between preserving their cultural identity and adapting to a new social context. This process, known as acculturation, inherently creates a tension: while integration pathways encourage adopting new societal norms, languages, and customs, maintaining one's heritage is equally vital for psychological well-being and a strong sense of self. Research consistently indicates that a robust connection to one's cultural roots, alongside active engagement with the new society, typically leads to more successful and healthier integration outcomes. When refugee and migrant women feel a sense of cultural acceptance and belonging, their confidence to engage in new environments, including educational and professional settings, significantly increases. Conversely, experiences of discrimination or cultural dissonance can lead to reduced self-esteem, social isolation, and a reluctance to participate fully.

A significant hurdle in this journey involves language barriers and cultural differences in communication. These challenges extend beyond mere vocabulary; they encompass nuanced cultural variations in communication styles, non-verbal cues, and interaction norms. For instance, nonverbal communication differences such as gestures, eye contact, personal space, and body language vary significantly across cultures and may lead to misinterpretations. A common example is eye contact: in some cultures, avoiding direct eye contact is a sign of respect, whereas in many Western societies, it may be perceived as dishonesty or a lack of confidence. Such differences can profoundly influence a woman's ability to access and participate effectively in education, secure job opportunities, and navigate everyday social interactions. Furthermore, preconceived notions about migrant and refugee women (e.g., being perceived as "submissive," "uneducated," or "difficult to integrate") can limit opportunities and create additional barriers. For instance, a study in Turkey highlighted that refugee women, particularly those with temporary protection status, face substantial economic integration difficulties due to cultural issues and language barriers (Sefer & Uğurelli, 2023). Similarly, in Bulgaria, language barriers are a major obstacle for refugee women seeking employment, compounded by insufficient access to Bulgarian language courses (European Website on Integration, 2025). These linguistic and cultural gaps can prevent women from fully understanding educational content, expressing their needs, or successfully interviewing for jobs, thereby limiting their pathways to independence and integration.

Figure 1: Smiling woman (Freepik)

Gender Challenges

Refugee and migrant women frequently encounter unique gender-specific hurdles to accessing education and job opportunities. Traditional gender roles and societal expectations, both in their countries of origin and in host countries, can significantly influence their access to education, the time they have available for learning, and the perceived value of their educational pursuits. These roles may also prevent women from engaging in public discussions or seeking leadership roles within educational or community settings (EIGE, 2020). Many migrant and refugee women carry a "double burden," juggling demanding domestic responsibilities, such as childcare and household management, with their aspirations for education and employment (European Commission, 2021). For example, a study in Bulgaria found that 76% of refugee women surveyed were unemployed, with childcare responsibilities and prevailing gender stereotypes in their communities being primary barriers to seeking work (Council of Refugee Women in Bulgaria, 2023).

It is crucial to understand these challenges through an intersectional lens, recognising how gender intricately combines with other aspects of identity, such as culture, religion, social status, and educational qualification, to create unique barriers or advantages. Eurostat data underscores these disparities, revealing that in 2024, non-EU citizens across the EU, a group that includes many migrant and refugee women, had the largest share of individuals with a low level of education. While foreign-born women generally show slightly higher levels of tertiary education compared to men across most migration status categories in the EU, they are often overqualified yet deskilled in the labour market (Ruiz & Donato, 2024). This phenomenon, particularly affecting migrant women workers (WMWs) from non-EU countries who are 6.4% more likely to be deskilled than their male counterparts suggests that despite their qualifications, systemic barriers and lack of recognition for foreign credentials hinder their full professional participation. Public prejudices against refugee communities, as seen in Bulgaria, further reduce employment opportunities and can lead to exploitation and lower wages (Council of Refugee Women in Bulgaria, 2023). These intersecting challenges can severely erode confidence, making it difficult for women to re-enter education or pursue employment that matches their skills and aspirations.

Figure 2: Woman and child (Freepik)

Heterogeneity of Migrant and Refugee Women (Learning Preferences)

The heterogeneity of migrant and refugee women's educational backgrounds poses a significant challenge for adult educators. Learners may present a wide spectrum of prior schooling experiences: some may be highly educated and overqualified for available opportunities, while others, due to various circumstances in their home countries or during displacement, may be low-literate (possessing minimal reading and writing skills) or even non-literate (unable to read or write at all). This diversity necessitates highly adaptable teaching approaches.

For adult educators, this means acknowledging and valuing all prior experiences, even if they are not formally recognised in the host country. Building confidence and making new learning relevant requires tailoring content and methods to this varied landscape. Furthermore, significant gaps remain regarding the specific language learning challenges faced by marginalised migrant and refugee women, particularly among non-literate and low-literate adults (Vande Craats, Kurvers, & Young-Scholten, 2006). Therefore, this section emphasises the critical importance of focusing not only on language education but also on essential literacy development. Educators must continuously consider the diverse social variables of this heterogeneous population to ensure that learning preferences are met and that all women, regardless of their prior educational attainment, are empowered to thrive.

This subtopic delves into the profound psychological impact of displacement and migration on refugee and migrant women, a critical area for adult educators to understand so they can create educational environments that are supportive, inclusive, and truly trauma-informed.

This subtopic delves into the profound psychological impact of displacement and migration on refugee and migrant women, a critical area for adult educators to understand so they can create educational environments that are supportive, inclusive, and truly trauma-informed.

3.2.1. Psychological impact of displacement and migration

With large numbers of migrants arriving in Europe, integration policies and education systems requires multicultural education and training for educators to better support newcomers from diverse backgrounds to ease the integration within host countries. However, in some cases national policies can significantly influence this balance, sometimes inadvertently pushing for assimilation (concept that we will later explore) rather than fostering true inclusion that values biculturalism.

In the same way, the environment for cultural adaptation is often shaped by societal responses, where discontent among local residents, sometimes fuelled by economic pressures, can foster xenophobia, making the integration process harder for migrants and potentially forcing them into more survival-driven adaptive strategies rather than organic cultural exchange.

Migrants actively navigate the tension between adopting new social norms, languages, and systems and while trying to maintain their cultural roots. This process is an ongoing struggle to balance old and new identities. John W. Berry's Two-Dimensional Identity Model illustrates various acculturation strategies:

• Integration: Strong identification with both original and host cultures, often associated with the most favourable psychological outcomes.
• Assimilation: Strong identification with the host culture, with a weak or rejected link to the original culture.
• Separation: Weak identification with the host culture, with a strong preservation of the original culture.
• Marginalisation: Weak links with both original and host cultures, often leading to the least favourable outcomes (Berry et al., 2006; Algan et. Al. 2012).

Figure 3: Two-dimensional Identity Model (John W. Berry)

People often change how they present themselves---downplaying or hiding parts of their background---to fit in, especially at work. For example, many avoid mentioning their refugee status due to stigma, showing how society pressures them to adapt for survival. This process is not easy: it involves on the one hand, loss and, on the other, creative adaptation and resilience. Identity becomes both a tool for navigating new challenges and a fragile part of oneself that can be deeply shaken.

Adapting to a new culture starts earlier than you might think. For many migrant and refugee women, this process begins before they even arrive in a new country. Their ability to adjust is deeply affected by traumatic experiences they lived through in their home country.

3.2.2. Pre-Migration Trauma

Pre-migration trauma refers to exposure to Potentially Traumatic Events (PTEs) in the country of origin before migration. For refugee and migrant women, these experiences often include:

• War and armed conflict
• Political persecution
• Physical and sexual violence
• Food and shelter insecurity
• Loss of loved ones and human rights abuses

These experiences are often directly linked to the reasons for fleeing and can have a cumulative effect, significantly increasing the risk of mental health conditions such as Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and depression (Vallejo-Martín, et. Al; 2021). Women are particularly vulnerable to gender-based violence and exploitation during conflict and displacement, leading to severe psychosocial consequences including social stigma, isolation, and chronic psychological distress (La Cascia, et. Al. 2020).

Illustrative example: The Unseen Scars of Conflict

Ukrainian refugee women resettled in Spain revealed the profound impact of pre-migration trauma. Many women recounted witnessing extreme violence and enduring sexual violence. These experiences, resulted in chronic anxiety, severe depression, and complex PTSD symptoms upon arrival in Spain. Once enrolled in education courses, sudden noises could trigger flashbacks, making learning hard. This shows why educators must understand pre-migration trauma and use trauma-informed teaching methods.

3.2.3. Migratory Mourning

Migratory mourning is the multifaceted grief response to losses inherent in migration. Unlike the grief associated with death, migratory mourning is often partial and recurrent, as the "lost" homeland persists, triggering recurrent grief through contact. It encompasses a wide range of losses, including:

• Interpersonal losses: Separation from family, friends, and community networks.
• Material losses: Loss of home, livelihood, possessions, and financial stability.
• Abstract losses: Loss of cultural identity, social status, language proficiency, familiar environment, future plans, and a sense of belonging.

This grief is often characterised by its multiplicity, involving simultaneous mourning for several core losses. Joseba Achotegui, a Spanish psychiatrist, coined the concept of "Ulysses Syndrome," an extreme form of migratory mourning, a state of chronic and multiple stress. Achotegui's work in Spain has shown that approximately 15% of migrants experiencing extreme mourning develop clinical symptoms, including atypical depression, anxiety, somatoform symptoms, and confusion (Achotegui, 2022). The syndrome is named after the Greek hero Odysseus (Ulysses), symbolising the intense suffering and isolation many migrants face (Nunner, 2017; Ulysses Syndrome Institute, n.d.). Resolving this complex grief often leads to a restructured identity, integrating elements of both original and host cultures. However, the inability to process these losses can hinder integration and perpetuate psychological distress.

Illustrative example: The Lingering Echoes of Home

Migrant women from various African countries living in Ireland revealed common themes of migratory mourning. Aisha, one of these women, tells about the loss of her close-knit community and cultural festivals. Despite building a new life, she experienced profound loneliness and a feeling of being "cut off" from her roots. News from home would trigger intense sadness and longing, illustrating the recurrent nature of migratory mourning. She described feeling like a different person, struggling to reconcile her Nigerian identity with her new Irish reality. This internal struggle, a form of Ulysses Syndrome, manifested as persistent headaches and difficulty sleeping, underscoring how profound abstract losses can impact physical and mental well-being.

3.2.4. Ongoing Post-Migration Stressors

Post-migration stressors are chronic adversities faced after resettlement in the host country, significantly impeding successful integration and exacerbating psychological vulnerabilities. They include:

• Financial Strain: Unemployment, poverty, and unstable housing are strongly associated with increased rates of depression and anxiety among migrant and refugee women (Whitehead, et. Al. 2025).
• Social Strain: Loss of social status, family separation, loneliness, and limited social networks are closely linked to acculturative stress and can significantly predict poor mental health, especially among women (La Cascia, et. Al. 2020).

Case Study: The Weight of Isolation

A study on Syrian refugee women resettled in Sweden highlighted the pervasive impact of social strain. Many women, previously embedded in large family structures, found themselves isolated. Language barriers, cultural differences, and childcare demands often prevented participation in social activities. One participant expressed deep sadness about her children adapting more quickly, while she felt increasingly disconnected. This isolation, compounded by the absence of extended family, led to severe depressive symptoms and a feeling of being trapped. This case underscores how the lack of social integration and support networks can significantly undermine mental well-being (Nissen, Sengoelge & Solberg, 2021).

3.2.5. Trauma-Informed Teaching Approaches and Promoting Resilience

To effectively support migrant and refugee women, adult educators must adopt trauma-informed teaching approaches. This framework emphasises creating a learning environment that prioritises safety, predictability, and empowerment, acknowledging the profound impact of past and ongoing adversities on learners' capacity to engage and thrive.

3.2.6. Core Principles of Trauma-Informed Teaching

A trauma-informed approach is guided by several key principles that foster a supportive and healing educational space (SAMHSA, 2014; Institute on Trauma and Trauma-Informed Care, 2021):

• Safety
  • Definition: Ensuring physical, emotional, and psychological safety.
  • Principles in Practice: Clear boundaries, respectful interactions, and consistent routines create a protected and secure classroom atmosphere (SmartBrief, n.d.; Edutopia, n.d.).

• Trustworthiness and Transparency

  • Definition: Building trust through clear, consistent, and honest communication.
  • Principles in Practice: Transparent expectations, classroom rules, and procedures; consistent communication; and avoiding vagueness (Edutopia, n.d.).
• Peer Support
  • Definition: Fostering a sense of community and mutual empowerment among learners.
  • Principles in Practice: Encouraging learners to share experiences and learn from each other; facilitating connections among those with similar backgrounds (Refugee Women's Network, n.d.; CAMH, 2022).
• Collaboration and Mutuality
  • Definition: Striving for collaborative relationships and shared decision-making.
  • Principles in Practice: Valuing learner input; working together towards shared goals; decisions made with, not for, learners.
• Empowerment, Voice, and Choice
  • Definition: Providing learners with agency, fostering autonomy, and restoring a sense of control.
  • Principles in Practice: Offering choices in learning activities, materials, and assessment methods; encouraging self-expression and decision-making (Tyler, 2025).
• Cultural, Historical, and Gender Issues
  • Definition: Acknowledging and responding to diverse cultural, historical, and gender influences on trauma.
  • Principles in Practice: Culturally competent and sensitive teaching; incorporating diverse perspectives into curricula; providing culturally responsive resources (Number Analytics, 2025).

Figure 4 Trauma-informed Approach to Pedagogy (SAMHSA)

3.2.7. Practical Ways to Promote Resilience and Well-being:

Beyond establishing a trauma-informed environment, educators can actively promote resilience and well-being through practical strategies:

• Facilitating Connection and Shared Experiences: Encourage activities that foster social interaction and a sense of belonging. Group projects, discussion forums, and shared cultural events can help learners build new social networks and combat isolation. The importance of social connections in building resilience cannot be overstated (Switchboard, 2024).
• Empowering Learners and Fostering Self-Efficacy: Provide opportunities for leadership, decision-making, and goal-setting. By focusing on their unique talents, skills, and achievements, educators can implement strengths-based approaches that build self-worth and confidence (Switchboard, 2024). This involves identifying and building upon their existing strengths and coping mechanisms, rather than solely focusing on deficits.
• Building on Strengths: Acknowledge and celebrate the immense resilience and adaptability that migrant and refugee women already possess. Encourage reflection on their past successes in overcoming adversity to reinforce their capacity for future challenges.

By integrating these trauma-informed principles and practical strategies, adult educators can create learning environments that not only impart knowledge but also serve as spaces for healing, growth, and empowerment for migrant and refugee women.

This subtopic has highlighted the profound psychological impacts of migration and trauma on refugee and migrant women, from pre-migration experiences to ongoing post-migration stressors. By understanding these challenges and adopting trauma-informed teaching approaches, adult educators can deepen their intercultural understanding, enabling them to create truly inclusive and impactful learning environments that foster resilience and well-being.

Food for Thought - Subtopic 1: Considering the diverse cultural backgrounds and learning preferences of migrant and refugee women, how might an adult educator proactively adapt their teaching materials and classroom activities to ensure genuine cultural responsiveness, beyond just language support?

Food for Thought - Subtopic 2: Given that common psychological responses to trauma are normal reactions to abnormal situations, how can adult educators foster an environment where migrant and refugee women feel safe enough to express their needs and experiences without fear of judgment or re-traumatisation, even if they do not explicitly disclose past trauma?

This module enhances adult educators' intercultural competence to foster inclusive and effective learning environments for migrant and refugee women.

Subtopic 1 examines cultural, gender, and learning barriers these women face in European adult education. Key challenges include differing communication styles, social norms, and prior education gaps. Gender-specific obstacles---such as patriarchal constraints, limited resources, and cultural adaptation pressures---further complicate learning. The section underscores the need for flexible, culturally responsive teaching methods that validate learners' diverse backgrounds and preferences, ensuring meaningful engagement.

Subtopic 2 explores the psychological toll of migration, including pre-migration trauma (e.g., violence), migratory grief (loss of home, identity), and post-migration stressors (discrimination, instability). It frames anxiety and PTSD as natural responses to extreme adversity and introduces trauma-informed teaching principles: safety, trust, peer support, collaboration, empowerment, and cultural sensitivity. By applying these approaches---alongside resilience-building strategies like fostering connection and self-efficacy---educators can create healing-centred classrooms that support both emotional recovery and academic success.

Together, these subtopics equip educators with the awareness and tools to address structural, cultural, and psychological barriers, ensuring migrant and refugee women thrive in learning spaces tailored to their needs.

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Whitehead, J; Fokaf, O; Deinekhovska, T; Egan, M; Seguin, M. (2025). Stressors faced by forcibly displaced Ukrainians in England within 6 months of arrival - LSHTM Research Online. https://researchonline.lshtm.ac.uk/id/eprint/4675484/1/Whitehead-etal-2025-Stressors-faced-by-forcibly-displaced-Ukrainians-in-England-within-6-months-of-arrival.pdf

Biculturalism: In academic literature, biculturalism generally refers to the comfort and proficiency an individual has with both their heritage culture and the culture of the country or region in which they have settled. It can involve the ability to navigate and integrate aspects of both cultures, such as language use, social interactions, values, and practices, often synthesising them into a unique and personalised blend (Mistry & Wu, n.d.).

Xenophobia: Britannica defines xenophobia as the fear and contempt of strangers or foreigners, or of anything designated as foreign. It also encompasses the conviction that certain foreign individuals and cultures pose a threat to the authentic identity of one's own nation-state and cannot peacefully integrate into local society (Britannica, n.d.). The European Commission's Migration and Home Affairs Glossary further describes it as attitudes, prejudices, and behaviour that reject, exclude, and often vilify persons based on the perception that they are outsiders or foreigners to the community, society, or national identity (European Commission, n.d.).

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, Text Revision (DSM-5-TR), PTSD is a mental health condition that may develop following exposure to a traumatic event or situation of an exceptionally threatening or catastrophic nature. It is characterised by four main symptom clusters: intrusion symptoms (e.g., flashbacks, nightmares), avoidance (e.g., avoiding reminders of the trauma), negative alterations in cognition and mood (e.g., persistent negative beliefs, detachment), and marked alterations in arousal and reactivity (e.g., hypervigilance, irritability). These symptoms must persist for more than one month and cause clinically significant distress or impairment in functioning (BMJ Best Practice US, 2024; National Library of Medicine (n.d.).

Gender-based violence (GBV): The United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) defines gender-based violence as any intentional act or failure to act -- whether threatened or actual -- against a person on the basis of their gender that results (or is likely to result) in physical, sexual or psychological harm. It is an umbrella term for any harmful act that is perpetrated against a person's will and that is based on socially ascribed (gender) differences between males and females. While it can affect people of all genders, women and girls are disproportionately impacted. GBV is fundamentally driven by gender inequality and sustained by discriminatory social and gender norms (UNFPA, n.d.).